J Clin Gynecol Obstet

Journal of Clinical Gynecology and Obstetrics, ISSN 1927-1271 print, 1927-128X online, Open Access

Article copyright, the authors; Journal compilation copyright, J Clin Gynecol Obstet and Elmer Press Inc

Journal website https://www.jcgo.org

Original Article

Volume 10, Number 3, September 2021, pages 73-80

The Psychological Effects of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic on Pregnant and Postpartum Women

**Table 1.** Demographic Characteristics of the Participants (N = 148)
Characteristic	N (%)
^aIncluding only those women who were pregnant (n = 42).
Age in years
20 - 30	57 (38.5)
30 - 40	81 (54.7)
40 - 50	6 (4.1)
Missing	4 (2.7)
Place of residence
Muscat Wilayat	14 (9.5)
Mutrah Wilayat	4 (2.7)
Seeb Wilayat	102 (68.9)
Qurayat Wilayat	1 (0.7)
Al Amerat Wilayat	4 (2.7)
Bowsher Wilayat	23 (15.5)
Education level
Postgraduate (master’s degree/doctorate)	29 (19.6)
Secondary	25 (16.9)
University (diploma/bachelor’s degree)	94 (63.5)
Employment status
Employed	102 (68.9)
Retired	1 (0.7)
Student	2 (1.4)
Unemployed	43 (29.1)
Reproductive category
Pregnant	42 (28.4)
Immediate postpartum period (≤ 3 months)	106 (71.6)
Trimester of pregnancy^a
First	7 (16.7)
Second	8 (19.0)
Third	27 (64.3)

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Participants (N = 148)

Characteristic

N (%)

^aIncluding only those women who were pregnant (n = 42).

Age in years

20 - 30

57 (38.5)

30 - 40

81 (54.7)

40 - 50

6 (4.1)

Missing

4 (2.7)

Place of residence

Muscat Wilayat

14 (9.5)

Mutrah Wilayat

4 (2.7)

Seeb Wilayat

102 (68.9)

Qurayat Wilayat

1 (0.7)

Al Amerat Wilayat

4 (2.7)

Bowsher Wilayat

23 (15.5)

Education level

Postgraduate (master’s degree/doctorate)

29 (19.6)

Secondary

25 (16.9)

University (diploma/bachelor’s degree)

94 (63.5)

Employment status

Employed

102 (68.9)

Retired

1 (0.7)

Student

2 (1.4)

Unemployed

43 (29.1)

Reproductive category

Pregnant

42 (28.4)

Immediate postpartum period (≤ 3 months)

106 (71.6)

Trimester of pregnancy^a

First

7 (16.7)

Second

8 (19.0)

Third

27 (64.3)

**Table 2.** Effect of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Health Visits and Social Support (N = 148)
Item	N (%)
COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019.
What is your COVID-19 status?
I developed symptoms but did not do the test	8 (5.4)
I was/am infected	14 (9.5)
I was/am not infected	126 (85.1)
Did the pandemic have an effect on your number of health visits?
Yes	71 (48.0)
No	77 (52.0)
Did the pandemic have a negative effect on your pregnancy or delivery preparations?
Yes	116 (78.4)
No	32 (21.6)
Did you miss the presence of friends and family during pregnancy or after birth?
Yes	116 (78.4)
No	32 (21.6)

Table 2. Effect of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Health Visits and Social Support (N = 148)

Item

N (%)

COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019.

What is your COVID-19 status?

I developed symptoms but did not do the test

8 (5.4)

I was/am infected

14 (9.5)

I was/am not infected

126 (85.1)

Did the pandemic have an effect on your number of health visits?

Yes

71 (48.0)

77 (52.0)

Did the pandemic have a negative effect on your pregnancy or delivery preparations?

Yes

116 (78.4)

32 (21.6)

Did you miss the presence of friends and family during pregnancy or after birth?

Yes

116 (78.4)

32 (21.6)

**Table 3.** Associations Between Psychological Outcomes and Selected Demographic Characteristics and Participant Responses
Participant characteristic	Stress	P value^a	Anxiety	P value^a	Depression	P value^a
^aChi-square test P value. *Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05. COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019.
Age (years)			0.616			0.522			0.906
20 - 30	40 (38.1)	15 (42.9)		34 (32.7)	16 (36.4)		32 (31.4)	14 (30.4)
30 - 40	57 (54.3)	12 (34.3)		61 (58.7)	20 (45.4)		55 (53.9)	19 (41.3)
40 - 50	7 (6.7)	6 (17.1)		8 (7.7)	5 (11.4)		15 (14.7)	13 (28.3)
Missing	1 (0.9)	2 (5.7)		1 (0.9)	3 (6.8)
Education level			0.340			0.340			0.562
Postgraduate (master’s degree/doctorate)	19 (18.1)	7 (20.0)		22 (21.2)	7 (15.9)		19 (18.6)	10 (21.7)
Secondary	17 (16.2)	7 (20.0)		14 (13.5)	11 (25%)		14 (13.7)	11 (23.9)
University (diploma/bachelor’s degree)	69 (65.7)	21 (60.0)		68 (65.4)	26 (59.1)		69 (67.6)	25 (54.3)
Employment status			0.876			0.311			0.975
Employed	72 (68.6)	23 (65.7)		72 (69.2)	30 (68.2)		70 (68.6)	32 (69.6)
Unemployed	33 (31.4)	11 (31.4)		31 (29.8)	14 (31.8)		31 (30.4)	14 (30.4)
Missing		1 (2.9)		1 (1.0)			1 (1.0)
Monthly income (in Omani rials)			0.559			0.006*			0.011*
< 500	11 (10.5)	5 (14.3)		7 (6.7)	22 (50.0)		7 (6.9)	23 (50.0)
500 - 1,000	40 (38.1)	10 (28.6)		40 (38.5)	11 (25.0)		39 (38.2)	12 (26.1)
> 1,000	54 (51.4)	20 (57.1)		57 (54.8)	11 (25.0)		56 (54.9)	11 (23.9)
COVID-19 infection status			0.439			0.360			0.871
No	98 (93.3)	31 (88.6)		95 (91.3)	37 (84.1)		93 (91.2)	41 (89.1)
Yes	7 (6.7)	4 (11.4)		9 (8.7)	5 (11.4)		9 (8.8)	5 (10.9)
Missing					2 (4.5)
Presence of an elderly person (≥ 65 years) at home			0.452			0.047*			0.659
No	87 (82.9)	27 (77.1)		88 (84.6)	16 (36.4)		83 (81.4)	36 (78.3)
Yes	18 (17.1)	8 (22.9)		16 (15.4)	28 (63.6)		19 (18.6)	10 (21.7)
Monthly income affected by pandemic			0.21			< 0.001*			< 0.001*
No	88 (83.8)	26 (74.3)		93 (89.4)	18 (40.9)		90 (88.2)	17 (37.0)
Yes	17 (16.2)	9 (25.7)		11 (10.6)	26 (59.1)		12 (11.8)	29 (63.0)
Missing the presence of family/friends during pregnancy/after birth	28 (26.7)	4 (11.4)	0.063	28 (26.9)	9 (20.5)	0.016*	27 (26.5)	5 (10.9)	0.033*
No	77 (73.3)	31 (88.6)		76 (73.1)	35 (79.5)		75 (73.5)	41 (89.1)
Yes
Negative effect of the pandemic on pregnancy and birth preparations			0.135			0.029*			0.278
No	28 (26.7)	5 (14.3)		29 (27.9)	5 (11.4)		26 (25.5)	8 (17.4)
Yes	77 (73.3)	30 (85.7)		75 (72.1)	39 (88.6)		76 (74.5)	38 (82.6)

Table 3. Associations Between Psychological Outcomes and Selected Demographic Characteristics and Participant Responses

Participant characteristic

Stress

P value^a

Anxiety

P value^a

Depression

P value^a

No (105)

Yes (35)

No (104)

Yes (44)

No (102)

Yes (46)

^aChi-square test P value. *Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05. COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019.

Age (years)

0.616

0.522

0.906

20 - 30

40 (38.1)

15 (42.9)

34 (32.7)

16 (36.4)

32 (31.4)

14 (30.4)

30 - 40

57 (54.3)

12 (34.3)

61 (58.7)

20 (45.4)

55 (53.9)

19 (41.3)

40 - 50

7 (6.7)

6 (17.1)

8 (7.7)

5 (11.4)

15 (14.7)

13 (28.3)

Missing

1 (0.9)

2 (5.7)

1 (0.9)

3 (6.8)

Education level

0.340

0.562

Postgraduate (master’s degree/doctorate)

19 (18.1)

7 (20.0)

22 (21.2)

7 (15.9)

19 (18.6)

10 (21.7)

Secondary

17 (16.2)

7 (20.0)

14 (13.5)

11 (25%)

14 (13.7)

11 (23.9)

University (diploma/bachelor’s degree)

69 (65.7)

21 (60.0)

68 (65.4)

26 (59.1)

69 (67.6)

25 (54.3)

Employment status

0.876

0.311

0.975

Employed

72 (68.6)

23 (65.7)

72 (69.2)

30 (68.2)

70 (68.6)

32 (69.6)

Unemployed

33 (31.4)

11 (31.4)

31 (29.8)

14 (31.8)

31 (30.4)

14 (30.4)

Missing

1 (2.9)

1 (1.0)

Monthly income (in Omani rials)

0.559

0.006*

0.011*

< 500

11 (10.5)

5 (14.3)

7 (6.7)

22 (50.0)

7 (6.9)

23 (50.0)

500 - 1,000

40 (38.1)

10 (28.6)

40 (38.5)

11 (25.0)

39 (38.2)

12 (26.1)

> 1,000

54 (51.4)

20 (57.1)

57 (54.8)

11 (25.0)

56 (54.9)

11 (23.9)

COVID-19 infection status

0.439

0.360

0.871

98 (93.3)

31 (88.6)

95 (91.3)

37 (84.1)

93 (91.2)

41 (89.1)

Yes

7 (6.7)

4 (11.4)

9 (8.7)

5 (11.4)

9 (8.8)

5 (10.9)

Missing

2 (4.5)

Presence of an elderly person (≥ 65 years) at home

0.452

0.047*

0.659

87 (82.9)

27 (77.1)

88 (84.6)

16 (36.4)

83 (81.4)

36 (78.3)

Yes

18 (17.1)

8 (22.9)

16 (15.4)

28 (63.6)

19 (18.6)

10 (21.7)

Monthly income affected by pandemic

0.21

< 0.001*

88 (83.8)

26 (74.3)

93 (89.4)

18 (40.9)

90 (88.2)

17 (37.0)

Yes

17 (16.2)

9 (25.7)

11 (10.6)

26 (59.1)

12 (11.8)

29 (63.0)

Missing the presence of family/friends during pregnancy/after birth

28 (26.7)

4 (11.4)

0.063

28 (26.9)

9 (20.5)

0.016*

27 (26.5)

5 (10.9)

0.033*

77 (73.3)

31 (88.6)

76 (73.1)

35 (79.5)

75 (73.5)

41 (89.1)

Yes

Negative effect of the pandemic on pregnancy and birth preparations

0.135

0.029*

0.278

28 (26.7)

5 (14.3)

29 (27.9)

5 (11.4)

26 (25.5)

8 (17.4)

Yes

77 (73.3)

30 (85.7)

75 (72.1)

39 (88.6)

76 (74.5)

38 (82.6)